الفرق بين التدريس والتعليم والتعلم

 

الفرق بين التدريس والتعليم والتعلم

 

  ـ التدريس ... التعليم ... التعلم .
 

* ـ التدريس :

 
* عرف غانم (1995م) التدريس على أنه \"تلك العملية التي يقوم بها المدرس بدور المرشد والمدرس والمعد للبيئة التعليمية وللمواد وللخبرات التعليمية التي يكون فيها المتعلم حيوياً ونشطاً وفاعلاً\" (ص 134) .
* أما كوثر كوجك فذكرت تعريف ستيفن كوري Stephen Cory للتدريس حيث عرفه بأنه \"عملية متعمدة لتشكيل بيئة الفرد بصورة تمكنه من أن يتعلم القيام بسلوك محدد أو الاشتراك في سلوك معين , وذلك تحت شروط محددة أو كإستجابة لظروف محددة\" (ص102) .
* ـ ذكر زيتون (2001م) (ص54-55) أن التدريس يندرج تحت ثلاث عمليات أساسية :
* الأولى : عملية التصميم .. \"التخطيط\" ويتم بمقتضاها تنظيم مدخلات التدريس في صورة خطة تدريسية بشكل معين لتحقيق أهداف تعليمية محددة .
* الثانية : عملية التنفيذ : ويتم فيها تطبيق هذه الخطة واقعياً في الفصول الدراسية .
* الثالثة : عملية التقويم : ويتم فيها الحكم على مدى تحقيق نظام التدريس لأهدافه .

* ـ التعليم :
* عرفه غانم (1995م) بقوله \"نشاط يهدف إلى تحقيق التعلم ويمارس بالطريقة التي يتم فيها احترام النمو العقلي للطالب وقدرته على الحكم المستقل وهو يهدف إلى المعرفة والفهم\" (ص 134) .
* أما الخلايلة واللبابيدي (1990م) فقد عرفاه بقولهما : \"هو مجرد مجهود شخصي لمعونة شخص آخر على التعلم .. والتعليم عملية حفز واستثارة لقوى المتعلم العقلية ونشاطه الذاتي وتهيئة الظروف المناسبة التي تمكن المتعلم من التعلم , كما أن التعليم الجيد يكفل انتقال أثر التدريب والتعلم وتطبيق المبادئ العامة التي يكتسبها المتعلم على مجالات أخرى ومواقف متشابهة\" (ص 10) .

* ـ الفرق بين التدريس والتعليم :
* تحدث عنه زيتون (2001م) (ص 56) فكان مما ذكره : عادة مايطلق التربويون الغربيون لفظة Instruction ( وترجمتها الشائعة هي التعليم ) على عملية التدريس Teaching عندما يمكن اخضاعها للضبط والتوجيه, وبذلك فهم يفرقون بين لفظة التدريس ولفظة التعليم, فيعتبرون التدريس لفظة عامة تشير إلى أي موقف تعليمي يمر به الفرد ويتعلم منه شيئا\", سواء أكان الموقف مقصوداً وخاضعاً للضبط والتوجيه من قبل المعلم أو الطالب أم لا، فالفرد قد يتلقى تدريساً في أحد المساجد من خلال سماعه خطبة الجمعة مثلاً, وهو موقف تدريسي غير خاضع عادة للضبط والتوجيه والتحكم , كما أنه قد يتلقى تدريساً من خلال الحاسوب وهو موقف يمكن التحكم فيه فكلا الموقفين يعتبر تدريساً, غير أن لفظة التعليم لا تطلق إلا على مواقف التعليم الخاضعة للضبط والتوجيه فقط , كحال موقف التعليم بالحاسوب، فالتعليم في نظرهم حالة خاصة من حالات التدريس .
وأضاف على ذلك يحيى والمنوفي ( 1998م) (ص 17) أن التعليم لا يؤدي إلى التدريس بينما العكس صحيح, كما أن التدريس مفهوم أعم وأشمل من التعليم .

* ـ التعلم :
* عرفه فاروق فهمي ومنى عبد الصبور (2001م) بأنه \"تغير في البنية المعرفية للمتعلم كمياً بتراكم الخبرات والمعلومات وكيفياً بالتفاعل المستمر بين مكوناتها, ولاكتساب معنى جديد لابد أن يتكامل هذا المعنى مع المعاني التي سبق للفرد تعلمها بحيث تشكل أو تعطي علاقات جديدة\" (ص 88) .
* وذكر الشرقاوي (1991م) تعريفاً للتعلم من وجهة نظر أوزوبل \"هو عملية إحداث علاقات وارتباطات بين المعلومات الموجودة بالفعل في البناء المعرفي للمتعلم وما يقدم له من معلومات جديدة\" (ص 189) .
* ويعرفه الدكتور أنور الشرقاوي (1991م) على أنه \"عملية تغير شبه دائم في سلوك الفرد لا يلاحظ بشكل مباشر ولكن يستدل عليه من السلوك ويتكون نتيجة الممارسة كما يظهر في تغير الآداء لدى الكائن الحي\" (ص 26) .

* ـ الفرق بين التدريس والتعلم :
* ذكرت كوثر كوجك (1997م) (ص 100-101) الفرق بأن التدريس وسيلة إتصال وتفاهم بين طرفين , أي أنه لابد من وجود مرسل ومستقبل بطريقة معينة , وعن طريق وسيط معين, بمعنى أننا لا يمكننا القول أن مدرساً قام بعملية تدريس ناجحة إذا لم يوجد من يتعلم منه شيئاً, فنحن لا نستطيع اتحدث عن التدريس دون التحدث في الوقت نفسه عن التعلم .
ولكن العكس غير صحيح, بمعنى أن التعلم لا يتوقف حدوثه على التدريس, فهناك شياء كثيرة مما نتعلمه في حياتنا إنما نتعلمه من الحياة نفسها وبالتجربة والخطأ أو بالصدفة, وقد نتعلم أشياء ضارة أيضاً .
والتدريس يتم بوعي وبتعمد وبناء على تخطيط مسبق .
  ـ المراجع :
1- الخلايلة , عبد الكريم واللبابيدي, عفاف .. طرق تعليم التفكير للأطفال ,ط1 , عمَان : دار الفكر , 1990م .
2- زيتون , حسن حسين .. تصميم التدريس رؤية منظومية , ط 2 , القاهرة : عالم الكتب,1421ه/2001م .
3- غانم , محمود محمد . التفكير عند الأطفال تطوره وطرق تطويره , ط 1 , عمَان : دار الفكر , 1416ه/1995م .
4- فهمي , فاروق وعبد الصبور , منى . المدخل المنظومي في مواجهة التحديات التربوية المعاصرة والمستقبلية, ط 1 , القاهرة : دار المعارف , 2001م .

5- كوجك , كوثر حسين . اتجاهات حديثة في المناهج وطرق التدريس ,ط 2,القاهرة :عالم الكتب,1997م .

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An interview on linguistics

Noam Chomsky, An interview on linguistics

 

Noam Chomsky interviewed by the British Broadcasting Corporation

QUESTION: Back in the fifties what led you to think about language in a different way than it had previously been thought of?

CHOMSKY:Well... the main change I guess was that at that time, I and others were involved in an effort to construct explicit grammars, that is explicit theories of a language which would describe systems of rules and principles which would characterise exactly the form and meaning of the sentences of a language. Now in a way that had been the goal for a long time but there had never been a way of achieving it because the techniques for giving an accurate account of an infinite array of complex data were not well understood. By the mid-twentieth century those techniques had become well understood through advances in the formal sciences and it became possible to undertake a project which had very traditional roots though it had been abandoned for a long time, namely actually characterising what used to be called the infinite use of finite means. The mind has finite means but it makes unbounded use of them and in very specific and organised ways. That's the core problem of language that it became possible to face.
As soon as you began to face it seriously, say in the mid-fifties, it became evident instantly that the most comprehensive grammars and detailed dictionaries didn't even begin to scratch the surface of the phenomena. They were basically presenting hints that were sufficient for someone who already had knowledge of the language, to be able to get further knowledge but they were pre-supposing a vast wealth of knowledge of language and the task was to address what was being pre-supposed in the huge, traditional, comprehensive grammars and in dictionaries. When that was done, it was found that the very delicate and precise and specific understanding was achieved under very slight access to information, which meant that the language system is like other biological systems. It develops in its own specific fashion on the basis of its genetically determined properties and in the course of this development it's modified and shaped by interaction with the outside environment in some fashion.
If you want to study the visual system you find the same thing: it reaches a highly articulated very specific form - but not without data. In fact, it is now known that if you prevent visual evidence from reaching the visual system at an early period of life this system actually degenerates. But through some interaction of the initial instructions, the genetic constructions and triggering and shaping events of the environment, an intricate system of a highly specific sort takes shape. Language seems to be pretty much the same way and from then on the task is just to separate out these factors to see what are the principles which are rooted in our nature and therefore will establish the form, the basic form of any human language and to what extent variation is tolerable in system and how it arises.

QUESTION: So in essence, you started to look at language from the point of view of acquisition and comparing what experience children have and contrasting that with the knowledge that they seem to express when they learn to speak.

CHOMSKY: Which is a slight shift from what was done. Actually it's a significant shift of perspective but there are some similarities. The structural linguistics of the day didn't raise these questions but it raised a similar question. It raised the question of what were called discovery procedures. Suppose you're going out to study Cherokee, and you know nothing about it. When I was taught linguistics you were taught field techniques, so you were taught techniques for going out into the field and finding a Cherokee informant. Then the set of procedures that you're supposed to use, that carry you slowly through interaction with the informant to give you data and gradually giving you a grammar of the language, that's the discovery procedures. Well that has sort of a slight similarity to the problem of language acquisition. If you imagine the linguist in the position of the child and the informant in the position of the environment and the procedures playing something of the role of the interaction, there's a sort of a vague similarity. Of course the similarity doesn't go very far. The child is built to know language. The anthropologist is not built to know Cherokee, so in fact the analogies break down pretty fast but the transition from one point of view to another was not as radical as it might seem because of the loose analogy.

QUESTION: But there was the shift from simply finding out the rules of language for its own sake. You were looking at it in a different way.

CHOMSKY: You could put it that way, but I would also say that there was a shift with regard to finding the rules of language at all. Traditional linguistics did not try to find the rules of language. It thought it was doing it but as soon as you took a close look at what was happening, you saw that it wasn't really doing it at all, it was just giving a certain amount of information which could be used by somebody who already tacitly knew the rules of language, to sort of add in the rest.
Let me take a simpler case. Take a look at the Oxford English dictionary and look up the meaning of some word you don't know. Well it gives you lots and lots of information. Does it give you the meaning of the word? It doesn't even come close to giving you the meaning of the word. As soon as you start studying what every three year old knows about words, you find that the meanings given in the Oxford English dictionary simply are hints for someone who has all that knowledge intrinsically. Those hints will tell you "okay it's this word not that word" but most of the knowledge isn't even addressed and if you want to understand what the language really is, well you have to address the knowledge that's tacitly presupposed. If your purpose is to provide something useful for someone who already knows the language, well then do it exactly the way its been done. But these are different goals.
This distinction magnifies radically as soon as you go beyond single words to look at expressions of the kind that you and I are now using where the richness of understanding goes vastly beyond anything that begins to be described in even the richest traditional grammar. So the main goal was find the actual rules of language. Then the next goal would be explain how they got there. Well to explain how they got there you have to go back and ask what's the initial state of the language faculty. What's it's initial design, presumably common to the species, because we're not adapted to learn one language or another? So what is the initial design of the common language faculty that enables it to take these highly intricate, closely articulated, delicately structured forms very rapidly on the basis of minimal interaction with the environment. It's a typical problem of growth, you know of growth of organs - in this case the growth of the language organ.

QUESTION: What are the features of language that must be, at least partly, innate?

CHOMSKY: Every feature of language from the articulatory gestures to the meanings of words, to the ways sentences are constructed. As soon as you begin to describe accurately the way these work, you see at once that the evidence from the environment does not determine those choices. In fact it allows those choices but allows innumerable other choices and there is no point in the whole system where you fail to find this. It isn't noticed, only because of the pre-supposition that how else could it be.
Maybe the easiest way to think about it is simply to look at the meaning of words. Take the word "book", a simple word. What do we know about the meaning of the word? Well, we know for example that a book can be something quite concrete like you have a book sitting next to you that weighs two pounds. That's concrete. We also know that a book can be quite abstract, like I can have the same book that you have. We both went to the library, there were two copies of Tolstoy's "War and Peace" in the library, you got one, I took out the other. We took out the same book from the library. In that sense the word is abstract. Of course from another point of view we took out different books from the library. Namely different copies of it. So the word book is simultaneously both abstract and concrete and in fact we can use it with one use adopting simultaneously it's abstract and it's concrete interpretation. So I can say that John's book is in every store in the library. Well the thing that's in every store is something concrete, his book is something abstract. I can say that if you ever write that book you're planning it will weigh at least five pounds. There combining the concrete and abstract usage. I'm using the pronoun "it" to refer to both of them simultaneously. And it just goes on like this.
Every word of the language is like this. Combinations of words add simply richer layers of complexity. If we go down from the word to the things that constitute it, that is its actual sounds and the way they're put together, we find very much the same. There is simply rich knowledge that everyone has automatically. You can't possibly be taught it, like no one ever taught anyone that the word book is simultaneously abstract and concrete. These are aspects of language that you find where ever you look. The reason that this was not taken for granted is that the knowledge was simply presupposed.

QUESTION: What is it about the grammars of natural language that can't be inferred just from the input?

CHOMSKY: To infer anything from an input you have to have a specific method of deriving information that leads you to that result. So we ask what aspect of grammar forces us to assume that there are highly specific ways of getting the result? Answer: every aspect. There are no generalised mechanisms known for looking at masses of data and yielding this specific analysis. They'll yield any analysis depending on how you tune them. When you begin to look at the actual properties of very simple expressions you can begin to determine the principles that are being used. So for example, take the sentence "John ate an apple". Let's say we've gotten to the point where the child understands that. We hear "John eats". Let's say the child understands that to mean John is eating something-or-other, not necessarily an apple. Well there's a kind of a principle. The principle says that if something is missing that belongs there, you understand it to mean something-or-other, okay that's natural. Take it a step further. Take the sentence "John is too stubborn to talk to Bill". Okay, that means John is so stubborn that he won't talk to Bill. Drop out the last word Bill, just like we dropped out the last word apple, "John is too stubborn to talk to". Well, by the principle we just used it ought to mean John is so stubborn that he won't talk to someone-or-other which is perfectly sensible but it doesn't mean that. It means that John is so stubborn that someone or other won't talk to him, John, so we invert the interpretation. We're dealing with tiny sentences, seven word sentences. Build this up a little bit it gets even more complex. "John is too clever for anyone to catch". Who's doing the catching? Well you can figure it out.
Even the most elementary look at expressions shows that they're being interpreted in very specific ways on the basis of information that simply isn't available. A child can go through its whole life without having heard evidence relevant to these interpretations and they're known instantly. And we furthermore know that they're understood at a very early age. In fact the better the experiments are being done, the earlier it turns out the things are understood. Now, if someone can come along with a general learning procedure, that will extricate precisely this information, not other information out of disorganised data, everyone will applaud but I don't think any serious biologist is waiting for it. It's like expecting some generalised growth procedure to turn a chicken embryo into a chicken, just on the basis of the nutritional inputs available. It's not a sensible proposal.

QUESTION: What you're saying is that in no case is the child's input anywhere near rich enough for them to infer the language. How does this relate to the children in Nicaragua and their experience.

CHOMSKY: Well there is a preliminary point that has to be established and that is that so called sign language involves the same or similar mechanisms as spoken language. That wasn't assumed some years ago, but now there's pretty strong evidence to indicate that that's true. So it looks as though when you study sign language you're studying a different manifestation of very much the same internal systems. With that assumption in place we can then proceed to address questions of the kind you're raising.
Suppose we had a case where a child learned say a spoken language with no evidence at all. That would be an extreme case and it would certainly be interesting but to be frank it wouldn't tell us a lot that we don't already know because the fact is that the evidence is already so impoverished that an enormous amount can be learned about the nature of the state attained, simply by comparing that state to the evidence available. Again the analogy to growth is normal, say growth of the visual system or growth of an embryo to a chicken. If you could get a chicken embryo to go to a chicken with no environmental input at all, that would be interesting, but it wouldn't teach you a great deal more about chickens, because the main problem is that the structure and nature of the input in the environment is far too impoverished to say anything about that specific course of development from embryo to chicken.
It does add something however and that's this case. Here's a case where a language-like system was created on the basis of, it seems, no input just by interaction. So you do see in a somewhat pure form the way the principles are developing under these particular circumstances. It's as if you could experimentally study the growth of the visual system of the cat without environmental inputs - just enough pattern stimulation to ensure that the system functions. Then you could see what happens when there's no effect of the environment then you certainly learn something. How much more you would learn well we don't know, you have to see.

QUESTION: Does this situation give us insights to what is required? We know that a child on their own exposed to no input doesn't acquire a language.

CHOMSKY: No we don't actually know that. All we know is that it doesn't happen. But so many things are going on that you can't really answer the question why its not happening. It's entirely possible, indeed likely, that some kinds of normal human interaction are required to get any system functioning. Children don't even grow properly if they're not treated with human sympathy let's say. Whatever effect it has is detectable in things like weight, let's say or ability to walk. What is required to get the language system working we really don't know. So for example it's unknown really whether a child could learn language from television. There's anecdotal evidence about this but it's not the kind of thing you do experiments about. So the answer is really not known. Notice if you watch television you're getting an enormous amount of data but it may be that it's not the kind of interaction that stimulates the system to function and much more impoverished data between two year olds talking might be sufficient to get the system to function. These are hard questions in any aspect of growth of organisms in particular in this one.
We don't allow ourselves fortunately to do human experiments and therefore cannot do the kind of experiment which would sharpen up our understanding of exactly what kind of interaction, and what kind of evidence, is required to get the language organ moving in its natural way and to shape and direct it - so you have to rely on natural experiments. Notice in the case of the visual system, a lot of these questions are answered so its understood pretty well what kind of early stimulation must be given to the visual system to enable it to function in its normal way and how modifications in that early stimulation change the ways it functions. The reason that's known is because we do experiments rightly or wrongly on cats and monkeys, and it's assumed that cats and monkeys have more or less the same visual system. But you can't do experiments on the language organs of cats and monkeys because they don't have any. It seems to be a unique human possession. You have to go to insects to find any even remote analogies - meaning no serious connection. So here we have a system which is distinctive for the species. We don't permit ourselves to experiment with the species and therefore natural experiments of this kind are rich in significance and one wants to draw from them, whatever one can.
The Nicaraguan case appears to be a very rich example, the richest yet known, of a natural experiment in which a language-like system, maybe an actual human language, was developed on the basis of no external input as far as we know and that's intriguing.

QUESTION: What are the implications of this natural experiment?

CHOMSKY: It should provide further understanding of exactly what is needed in order to get the system working and just why it takes certain forms and not others. Here you have a case where you've minimised the input. And therefore when you look at the output you learn more about the initial state. I mean the logic of the situation is quite straight forward. There's some initial state of the system, genetically determined; there's some outside interaction; there's a state that it attains. You're interested in the initial system, and the more you minimise the input and then compare the output with the initial state, the more you learn about the initial state. Exactly the same when you're studying the visual system, except there you can do it by direct experiment on other organisms. Here we can't do and therefore this is the closest analogue that nature can provide to the kind of experiment that would be done if we allowed Joseph Mengelev a free reign.

QUESTION: Does this give us additional insight into the discontinuity between gesture and true language.

CHOMSKY: It could and that discontinuity is not too well understood. Humans have complicated gestural systems. I'm doing all sorts of things with my hands and there's all kind of body language as it's called. This isn't terribly well understood but it's more or less assumed, probably realistically, that the gestural systems are continuous with the gestural systems of other primates. It's Darwin's assumption and probably plausible. Until fairly recently it was supposed that sign language is a gestural system. The big discovery a couple of decades ago was that its not a gestural system, it's a language like system, which is something quite different. I mean after all, even speech involves gesture. Articulatory gestures they're called, like you move your tongue and your lips and so on. But these are very much unlike the kinds of gestures by which you indicate anger you know emotion or pointing and so on. Those differences began to be perceived in the study of sign in very interesting ways.
Some of the most interesting work on this was done by Laura Petito who studied the development of sign and gestural systems in very young infants and found that according to her results though they often have physically the same gesture, they fit in to different systems. So that when a normal hearing child is going through the babbling stage, the non-hearing child is going through a comparable stage but with gesture. If we could get in to the brain we'd probably find that different parts of the brain are involved in controlling and interpreting these motions.
As more has been learnt, the gestural systems and the linguistic systems come apart more and more - they appear to be different in their very basic nature. Language systems are discrete. I mean there's a three word sentence and there's a four word sentence but there's no three and a half word sentence. And infinite, they can go on forever. Its fundamentally a system of discrete infinity, rather rare in the biological world I should say. The gestural system is not, it's continuous. So if that motion indicates disparagement let's say, then (a larger) motion will indicate more disparagement and there's anything in between. It's not broken down into a discrete system which follows certain rules and principles and so on. At its very core, it seems to involve completely different principles than the language system. These distinctions show up in striking ways in sign language. Striking what appeared to be the same physical motions are involved, just falling in to different systems.

QUESTION: Why is it that children have this incredible ability to actually create a language when normally they are only required to learn an already existing language ?

CHOMSKY: Well superficially it may seem surprising that a child should be designed, engineered if you like, to create language from nothing. But when you think about it it's not surprising. Every child creates language from essentially nothing, just as every child creates a visual system from essentially nothing. The inputs to the visual system don't form the visual system. The same is true of the circulatory system or the immune system, or having legs rather than wings and so on. I mean every aspect of an organism is created, it grows from internal instructions.
In the case of humans, one fundamental part of their nature is a language organ and they plainly are designed, somehow, to develop this organ. As in other cases, it probably requires some triggering stimulation and gets some shaping from the environment but not very much as in other cases. This example is dramatic because it shows that just the interpersonal interaction without the linguistic evidence was apparently sufficient to trigger the development of the system and the system then grew along the ways in which it's programmed to grow. But this is just a more extreme example of what every child is doing.

 

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Language and culture

 Language and culture

Language and culture can be related in various ways. Goodenough (1957) defines that a society’s culture consist of whatever it is one has to know or believe in order to operate in a manner acceptable to its members, and to do so in any role that they accept for any one of themselves. Culture therefore is the ‘knowhow’ that a person must possess to get through the task of daily living; only for a few does it require a knowledge for some, or much, music, literature and the arts.

A. THE WHORFIAN HYPOTHESIS

There are three claims related to the relationship between the language and culture. The claim that is supporting the relationship between these two things, which states the structure of a language determines the way in which speakers of that language view the world. The structure does not determine the world-view but is still extremely influential in predisposing speakers of a language toward adopting a particular world view.

The opposite claim would be that the culture of a people finds reflection in the language they employ: because they value certain things and do them in a certain way, they come to use their language in ways that reflect what they value and what they do. Cultural requirements do not determine thestructure of a language, but they certainly influence how a language is used and perhaps determine why specific bits and pieces are the way they are.
Then, the neutral claim would be that there is little or no relationship between language and culture.

The claim that the structure of a language influences how its speakers view is associated by Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf. Sapir acknowledge the close relationship between language and culture, maintaining that they were inextricably related so that you could not understand or appreciate the one without a knowledge of the other.

Fishman (1960) claims that if speakers of one language have certain words to describe things and speakers of another language lack similar words, then speakers of the first language will find it easier to talk about those things.
A stronger claim is that if one language makes distinctions that another does not make, then those who use the first language will more readily perceive the differences in their environment which such linguistic distinctions draw attention to.
The strongest claim of all is that the grammatical categories available in a particular language not only help the users of that language to perceive the world in a certain way but also at the same time limit such perception. Your language controls your ‘world-view’.

Language then provides a screen or a filter to reality; it determines how speakers perceive and organize the world around them, both the natural world and the social world. Consequently, the language you speak helps to form yor world-view. Then, the language a person speaks affects that person’s relationship to the external world in one or more ways.

One language then refers to certain characteristics of the real world in terms of one possible sub-set of characteristics’ another favors a different sub-set. However, speakers may still be aware of all the characteristics. They are not required to refer to all of them.

Finally, the most valid conclusion concerning the Whorfian hypothesis is that it is still unproved. A speaker, of course, will not be aware of such circumlocution in the absence of familiarity with another language that uses a more succinct means of expression.


B. KINSHIP SYSTEMS

Kinship systems are a universal feature of languages, because kinship is so important in social organization. The social organization has some factors, like sex, age, generation, blood, and marriage.
Sometimes different relationships are described in the same terms, and sometimes similar relationships are described by the different terms. This fact and the need also to indicate the generation, and sometime sex, of the reference or ego, and occasionally the other’s age relative to the ego. As Hudson said, in various societies, a single term may refer to a very different type of relationship. The key to understanding such a system is to assume that there is some typical concept and that there equivalent rules.

It is important to remember that when a term like father, mother, sister, and brother is used in a kinship system that it carries with it ideas about how such people ought to behave toward others in the society that uses that system. It is kinship system which determines who is called what; it is not the behavior of individual which leads them to be called this or that.


Taxonomies

People also used language to classify and categorize various aspects of the world in which they live, but they do not always classify things the way scientist do; they often develop system which call folk taxonomies rather than scientific classification. A folk taxonomy is a way to classifying a certain part of reality so that it makes some kind of sense to those who have deal with it. Typically, such common taxonomies involve matters like naturally occurring flora and fauna in the environment, but they may also involve others matters too (Berlin, 1992).
One of the best known studies of a folk taxonomy is Frake's account (1961) of the terms that the Subanun of Mindanao in the southern Philippines uses to describe disease. Frake says (pp.130-31):

The 'real' world of desires presents a continuum of symptomatic variation which does not always fit neatly into conceptual pigeonholes. Consequently the diagnoses of a particular condition may evoke considerable debate: one reason a patient normally solicits diagnostic advice forma variety of people. But the debate does not concern the definition of diagnostic category, for that is clear and well-known; it concerns the exemplariness of a particular set of symptoms to the definition.
Diagnosis is the process of finding the appropriate name for a set of symptoms. Once the name is found, treatment can follow.


Color Terminology

Color terminology has also been used to explore the relationship between different language and culture. The color spectrum is a physical continuum showing no breaks at all. All languages make use of basic color terms. A basic color terms must be in a single word, e.g. blue, yellow, not some combination of words, e.g. light blue or pale yellow.

According to Berlin and Kay, an analysis of the basic color terms found in a wide variety of languages reveals certain very interesting patterns. If a language has only two terms, they are for equivalents to black and white (or dark and light). If the third is added, it is red. The fourth and fifth terms will be yellow and green, but the order may be reversed. The sixth and seventh terms are blue and brown. Finally, as in English, come terms like grey, pink, orange, and purple, but not only in particular order.

Two points about color terminology seem particularly interesting. One is the existence of such an order in the development of terms as that indicated above. The color spectrum is an objective fact: it is "out there", waiting to be dealt with cognitively. The second point is that, if speakers of any language are asked to identify the parts of the spectrum, the find one system of sick identification much easier to manipulate than another.


Prototype Theory

Rosch (1976) has proposed an alternative to the view that concept are composed from sets of features which necessarily and sufficiently define instances of a concept. Rosch proposed that concepts are best viewed as prototype: a 'bird' is not best defined by reference to a set of features that refer to such matters. Hudson (1996, pp. 75-8) believes that prototype theory has much to offer sociolinguists. He believes it leads to an easier account of how people learn to use language, particularly linguistic concept, from the kinds of instances they some across.

According to Hudson, prototype theory may even be applied to the social situations in which speech occurs. He suggests that, when we hear a new linguistic item, we associate with it who typically seems to use it and what apparently, is the typical occasion of its use.


Taboo and Euphemism
Taboo is the prohibition or avoidance in any society of behavior believed to be harmful to its members in that it would cause them anxiety, embarrassment, or shame. Consequently, so far as language is concerned, certain things are not to be said or certain objects can be referred to only in certain circumstances, for example only by a certain people, or through deliberate circumstances. Tabooed subjects can vary widely: sex, death, excretion, bodily functions, religion matters, and politics. Tabooed objects that must be avoided or used carefully can include your mother in law, certain game animals, and use of your left hand (the origin of spuster). Taboo and euphemism affect us all. We may have some we know but never or hardly ever use because they are to emotional for either us or others.

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Islamic Beliefs

Islamic Beliefs

The Islamic creed did not begin with the prophethood
of Muhammad (ĉ)1, nor was it invented by
him. It is essentially the same message contained in
previous divine scriptures and taught by all prophets
of Allah. Islamic beliefs are eternal truths that neither
change nor develop; they provide truths about Allah
and His relationship with the visible and invisible
aspects of the universe, about the reality of this life,
man's role therein and what will become of him
afterwards. The requirements, or "pillars", of the
Islamic faith are: belief in Allah, in the angels created
by Him, in His scriptures, in the prophets through
whom His revelation was conveyed to humanity, in
the eternal life after death and in Allah's perfect
judgment and complete authority over human
destiny.

Belief in Allah

Monotheism is the essence of Islam, and it
emphasizes the Oneness of Allah. Muslims believe in
One eternal and unique God. He is the Creator of all
that exists, yet He cannot be compared to anything of
His creation. Muslims acknowledge that Allah alone
is divine, that He alone is the Creator and Sustainer
of creation. He is all-knowing and all-powerful,
completely just and merciful.
Allah is not part of His creation, nor is any of it a
part of Him. The significance of exclusive divinity is
that no one and nothing in existence is worthy to be
worshipped except Allah, the Creator and Sustainer
of all things. In Islam, everything is built upon the
Oneness of Allah. No act of worship has any
meaning if the concept of monotheism is in any way
compromised.
The proper name of God is "Allah". He is the
same God known to Christians, Jews and to people
of other monotheistic faiths. Allah sent a series of
messages to mankind through appointed prophets
and messengers. Quite a few of them are familiar to
people of Judeo-Christian background, such as
Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus and many
others .

Belief in the Angels

Muslims believe that Angels exist. No one knows
their exact number except Him. They obey Him,
fulfill His commands, and guard over the universe
and the creatures that dwell within it. They carry out
the orders of Allah, from administration,
observation, guarding and protecting the universe as
well as its creatures, all according to Allah's Will and
Order. Allah has revealed to us the names of some of
the angels; for example, Gabriel, who was given the
task of revelation, Michael, who has been assigned
the task of directing rain and vegetation. There is
also the Angel of Death, who has been given the task
of collecting the souls at their appointed times.
Belief in the Scriptures
Muslims also believe in the original scriptures
revealed by Allah, such as the Scriptures of Abraham
and Moses, the Torah, the Psalms of David and the
Gospel of Jesus. The final revelation to humanity is
the Qur'an, which was revealed to Prophet
Muhammad (ĉ). The Qur'an remains preserved and
unchanged since the time of revelation in its original
Arabic text. There is only one version of the Qur'an.
It is recited and memorized by Muslims throughout
the world. It contains the final message to humanity
and legislation which both encompasses all spheres
of human life and is also suited to all peoples and all
times. Moreover, it contains numerous verses that
speak of the universe, its components and
phenomena - the earth, sun, moon, stars, mountains,
wind, rivers and seas, plants, animals, as well as the
successive stages of human embryonic development.
One of the miracles of the Qur'an, and evidence of its
divine origins, is that nothing within it contradicts
any established scientific fact.

Belief in the Messengers

A Muslim is required to believe that Allah chose
the finest amongst humanity to be Messengers
whom He sent to His creation with specific
legislations: to worship and obey Him and to
establish His religion and His Oneness. Allah, the
Almighty, says:
ƒvAnd We did not send any Messenger before
you [O Muhammad (ĉ)] but We inspired him
[saying]: none has the right to be worshipped
but I (Allah), so worship Me (Alone and none
else).ƒw [21:25]
The last of the divinely appointed messengers
was Prophet Muhammad (ĉ). To him was conveyed
the final and complete revelation from Allah. All the
prophets preached the same basic message: the
worship of Allah alone. In essence, they all preached
Islam, which means willing, peaceful submission to
Allah, the one true God; Creator of the universe.
The final prophet was sent by the Creator as a
human model to be followed and obeyed. Prophet
Muhammad (ĉ) exemplified the principles laid
down in the Qur'an, and true Muslims strive to
follow his noble example. His biography has been
recorded in minute detail and is easily accessible for
study. There is a complete, authentically narrated
documentation of his sayings and practices which is
the second source of Islamic legislation. It is
complementary to the Qur'an and supplements it
with additional details and clarification of meanings.
This record contains the prophetic traditions referred
to as the Sunnah. Scholars have carefully and
painstakingly scrutinized the reliability of the
transmitters of these traditions, and only those
whose narrators are found to be completely reliable
and sound are accepted.
Belief in the Last Day
Muslims believe that the life of this world will
come to an end. Allah says:
ƒvWhatsoever is on it (i.e. the earth) will perish.ƒw
[55:26]
The Day of Resurrection is the day when each
individual will stand before Allah and be questioned
about their deeds. The compensation for evil in the
Hereafter is exact justice, while the compensation for
good is much greater - comprehensive, multiple
rewards and complete satisfaction and happiness.
People will be judged according to their degree of
righteousness, and nothing else. Allah says:
ƒvWhoever brings a good deed shall have ten
times the like thereof to his (or her) credit, and
whoever brings an evil deed shall have only the
recompense of the like thereof.ƒw [6:160]
A person is rewarded for merely intending to do
good, even if they do not follow up that intention
with action. Prophet Muhammad (ĉ) mentioned that
Allah said:
،§Whoever intends to perform a good deed but
does not do it, Allah records it for him as one
good deed. If one intends to do a good deed and
does it, Allah records for him the like thereof
ten times, up to seven hundred times, to many
times. If one intends to do an evil deed, but
does not do it, Allah records it for him as one
good deed. If one intends to do an evil deed and
does it, Allah records it only as one evil deed.،¨
[Bukhari]

Belief in Predestination

Muslims believe in predestination, whether good
or bad, which Allah has measured and ordained for
all creatures according to His previous knowledge
and as deemed suitable by His wisdom. Allah, the
All-Knowing, knows everything that happened in
the past, everything that is happening now and all
that will happen in the future. Humankind has been
given free will and the choice of whether or not to
follow what Allah ordained. He has been given a
mind with which he is able to reason and choose
wisely.

09 Ramadhan 1432

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Everybody, Somebody, Anybody and Nobody

That's Not My Job


 

This is a story about four people:
Everybody, Somebody, Anybody and Nobody.
There was an important job to be done
and Everybody was sure that Somebody
would do it. Anybody could have done it but
Nobody did it. Somebody got angry about

 

that, because it was Everybody's job.
Everybody thought Anybody could do it but
Nobody realized that Everybody wouldn't do it
It ended up that Everybody blamed
Somebody when Nobody did what Anybody
could have done.

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الدراسات تؤكد أن الصيام يؤدي إلى تزايد النشاط

الدراسات تؤكد أن الصيام يؤدي إلى تزايد النشاط

الصيام لايؤدي إلى ضعف القدرات البدنية أو العقلية كما يعتقد بعض الصائمين بل أن الدراسات تشيرالى تزايد النشاط العقلي في حالة الجوع.و إلى أن بعض العوامل النفسية المحيطة بالصائم كالكسل والكآبة والضجر إلى غير ذلك لاترتبط بشكل كبير بالصيام وإنما هي من نسج الخيال فتؤكد الدراسات أن النشاط العقلي يزداد في حالة الجوع .و يمكن إرجاع السبب غالبا الى أن المعدة المملوءة بالغذاء تحتاج إلى نشاط و طاقة وهنا يتجه الدم إلى المعدة فيزداد نشاطها لكن في حالة الجوع يكون النشاط العقلي أكثر من النشاط البدني .

وكما أن من شأن القناعة الراسخة بماهية الصيام الروحانية والصحية أن تطرد كل إحساس بالكآبة والضجر الذي قد تلمحه في سلوك بعض الصائمين فالنضج العقلي والرقي البشري والتطور الحضاري بفعل العقائد السماوية لذلك فان للصوم علاقة مباشرة بتهذيب السلوك الإنساني وليس العكس فللجوع والعطش فوائد كثيرة سواء صحية آو نفسية .
وهناك نظريات أيضا تدلنا بشكل قاطع على أن الصيام له علاقة أيضا بعلاج مرض الفصام من خلال استجابته لحاسة الصبر والسعادة التي تحقق الراحة النفسية ومن هنا فان الصائم تحقق له الفرصة المثلي للتعامل مع التوترات البيولوجية إذا تعامل مع الصيام بشكل واعي .
و الإنسان يعمل كوحدة جسمية نفسية متكاملة ولا نستطيع أن نفصل الجسم عن النفس ولكن هذا لا يبرر سلوك بعض الصائمين الذين يبررون كسلهم ورغبتهم في النوم وتعطيل أعمالهم إلى الصوم مشيرا إلى حالات كثيرة منها على سبيل المثال الغضب و الاتكالية والكسل والنماذج كثيرة.
الصوم يقيس قدرة الإنسان على ضبط انفعالاته في حالة الجوع ويزيد من استعداداته النفسية ومهاراته في التعامل مع التوترات البيولوجية في حالة الصوم .
إن العلم والدين يتفقون إن الصيام حالة روحانية سامية لها بالتأكيد جوانب مشرقة على السلوك الإنساني فهي تسمو بالروح المؤمنة وتهذب النفوس وتحطم الرغبات والشهوات الإنسانية.
و كل الممارسات والأخلاقيات السلبية التي نراها من بعض الصائمين كالغضب والتوتر ربما تكون لها عوامل بيولوجية إلا أنها نفسية أكثر منها أي شئ أخر فلو فكر الصائم بفوائد الصيام والأجر الذي ينتظره لما تصرف بهذه السلبية فلقد قال الرسول (ص)" من صام رمضان إيمانا واحتسابا غفر له ما تقدم من ذنبه وما تأخر "لذلك فالصائم يتوقع منه العكس فمثلما صبر على الصوم عن الطعام والشراب فمن الضروري أن يتوج هذا الصيام بالعمل الصالح وبالأخلاق الحسنة .
إن الصوم استطاع أن يعالج حالات كثيرة من الادمان اعتمادا على عنصر التفاعل النفسي مع هذه الانفعالات وما تبثه في النفوس كما أن السلوك البشري الحقيقي لا يرتقي إلا بفعل العقيدة السماوية التي فتحت باب الرحمة والمغفرة من خلال الإيمان الحقيقي الذي يعي ماهية الصوم وتأثيره الايجابي في النفوس .

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قصة شركة نوكيا و النجاح الكبير

قصة شركة نوكيا و النجاح الكبير


(اعمل بمتعة وراحة بال، مدركًا أن الأفكار الصائبة والمجهود ينتج عنه لا محالة كل ما هو صائب وحق)


جيمس آلين.







من منا لا يحمل نوكيا؟ هذا ما يقوله الشخص الذي يريد أن يشتري جهاز محمول جديد, فهو يقول هذا الكلام؛ لأنه منطقيُّ إلى حد كبير, فكثير من الناس، وخاصة في الوطن العربي يفضلون شراء منتجات شركة نوكيا من المحمول, ومن ثم يمكن القول أن شركة (نوكيا) تعتبر من أهم شركات الهواتف المحمولة في العالم, وهي ليست متخصصة في صناعة الهواتف المحمولة فقط، بل أيضًا في صناعة الأجهزة الإلكترونية, وتحتل المركز الثالث على مستوى العالم في هذه الصناعة، فماذا تعرف عن هذه الشركة؟ وكيف كانت بدايتها؟ وما هو سر نجاحها؟ هل هو الإصرار أم الحظ؟ دعنا نتعرف سويًّا على خطوات الوصول إلى القمة.
صدق أو لا تصدق!
هل تعلم ماذا كان النشاط الأول لشركة نوكيا؟ لقد ظلت لسنوات طويلة تبيع المناديل الورقية، ولكن ـ وفي نقلة نوعية ـ استطاعت أن تدخل مجال الاتصالات بقوة، بل وتحتل مكانة مرموقة, تمكنت من خلالها من إنشاء مصانع في 12 دولة, وتبيع منتجاتها في 130 دولة في العالم, وذلك بعد اتحاد شركات ثلاث, كانت نواة لشركة نوكيا, وأصبحت تسمى (مجموعة شركات نوكيا).
وأما عن مؤسس هذه الشركة العريقة، فهو شخص فنلندي كان يعمل مهندسًا ويدعى (فريديريك إيدستام)، وكان يعمل في مصنع لإنتاج الورق وتصنيع الخشب, ثم أسس مكانًا متواضعًا له في المجال نفسه على نهر (نوكيا) في فنلندا.
وعلى الرغم من أن الشركة بدأت تحقق تقدمًا بطيئًا، ولكن ما لبثت أعمالها في الازدهار, إلا أنها لم تعرف نجاحًا فعليًّا سوى بعد العام 1960م، عندما بدأت بتنويع نشاطاتها وتوسيع مجال أعمالها.


الشرارة الأولى:
(إذا رفضت قبول أي شئ بخلاف الأفضل، فإنك في الغالب ستحصل عليه)، هكذا يرى الروائي الشهير سومرست موم، وهكذا كان اتجاه مؤسس الشركة (فريديريك إيدستام)، فبينما كان في ألمانيا يدرس الهندسة في المناجم والتنقيب، وبينما كان يزور مصنعًا محليًّا، لاحظ وجود آلة جديدة في تلك الأيام تحول الخشب، إلى لب يساعد في صناعة الورق.
وبمجرد ملاحظته لحجم العمل الكبير في المصنع، توقع أن يكون لهذا المجال شأن كبير في المستقبل، ولم يكد يصل إلى فنلندا حتى أوصى بشراء هذه الآلة وفتح مصنعه الذي تكلمنا عنه، وأصبح مصنع إيدستام أهم مصنع للمناديل الورقية في أوروبا.
1 X 3:
وأما عن الشركات الأخرى المكونة لاتحاد (نوكيا)، فهما بالإضافة إلى شركة (فريديريك ايدستام)، شركتان الأولى بدأت في عام 1898م, حين تم افتتاح مصنع لصناعة المطاط الذي يستخدم في تصنيع نعال الأحذية.
وقد كانت هذه الشركة جارة شركة (إيدستام)، وتم اختيار الموقع بعدما مرَّ مديران من شركة المطاط في المكان الذي تقع فيه شركة نوكيا؛ فأعجبا به وقررا فتح المصنع في هذه المنطقة, خاصة أنها كانت مزودة بالطاقة الكهربائية الهيدروليكية, وكان ذلك نادرًا في ذلك الوقت.
وانتقلت الشركة بعد صناعة النعال المطاطي للأحذية, إلى صناعة الأحذية المطاطية وعجلات السيارات، وكل ما يدخل في صناعة المطاط من لوازم سيارات, والأدوات المكتبية, والمعاطف، والكرات المطاطية ... إلخ.
وأما عن الشركة الثالثة المكونة لاتحاد (نوكيا) فهي شركة مختصة في تصنيع كابلات الكهرباء، وقد بدأت نشاطها في العاصمة الفلندية (هلسنكي) عام 1912م, وقد كان حينها بدأ الطلب على الكابلات بعد اكتشاف الكهرباء، ومن بعدها التلغراف والهاتف؛ مما دفع الشركة للنمو بسرعة بعدما بدأت بعدد ضئيل من الموظفين.
وبدأ الاتحاد بين الشركات الثلاث حين اشترت شركة الأحذية المطاطية غالبية أسهم شركة الكابلات الكهربية، ثم اتحدت الشركتان بجانب شركة (إيدستام)؛ لتأسيس مجموعة شركات نوكيا، وكان ذلك عام 1967م، وقد تم الاتفاق على أن يكون (بيورن ويسترلند) رئيس شركة الكابلات الكهربية رئيسًا للمجموعة.
نقطة التحول:
كان رئيس المجموعة (وسترلند) شخصًا طموحًا جدًا, وكان قبل عملية الدمج قد أسس من خلال شركته قسمًا للإلكترونيات, واتخذ من أجهزة الاتصال مشروعًا لعمله في هذا القسم.
وبهذا يكون قد بدأ في صناعة مهمة، كان المستقبل يخشاها وبدأت الأبحاث المضنية والمعقدة؛ لتطوير هذه الأجهزة, وبدأ حينها استعمال أساليب PCM وهي الحروف الثلاث الأولى لكلمة (Pulse Code Modulation), وكانت نوكيا أول شركة تطرح هذه الأجهزة على مستوى عالٍ؛ وقد فتحت هذه الصناعة آفاقًا مهمة لمجموعة شركات نوكيا، وكان عام 1970م بداية انطلاقها عالميًّا في مجال أجهزة الاتصال, فانطلقت إلى الاتحاد السوفيتي, في ذلك الحين, وبعدها إلى العالم.
وكان أهم زبائنها شركات الغاز والبترول وسكك الحديد, ومن بعدها المؤسسات العسكرية, خاصة من ناحية الراديو النقال في الموجات، حيث انقسمت عمليات الشركة إلى 3 نشاطات مختلفة: أجهزة الاتصالات وأنظمتها, وأجهزة الهواتف النقالة, وأجهزة الحاسب الآلي ومتفرعاته، وتتميز نوكيا بأجهزتها الرقمية عالية الجودة, والتي تطورت بشكل مذهل في فترة قصيرة جدًا, والسبب في ذلك تكاثر المنافسين؛ مما أدى إلى ابتكارات بسرعة تفوق الوصف.
ولا شك في أن نوكيا تتمتع بقدرة كبيرة على التفكير في المستقبل والتنبؤ به، فكان من أفضل استراتيجيات نوكيا إقامة علاقة ممتازة مع الجامعات والمدارس؛ لإيمانها بأن النشء الجديد يملك من الحس والأفكار والمخيلة أكثر من أي شيء آخر, فكانت تشجعهم على العمل معها في أوقات الصيف والعطلات, وتوظف الخريجين الذين لديهم الاستعداد للابتكار والتطور.
نجاح يناطح السحاب:
ولأن نوكيا دائمًا ما تبحث عن التطور، فقد كان يقال إن من كل 4 موظفين واحد منهم يعمل في الأبحاث والدراسات والتطوير, ما يؤكد أهمية هذا الموضوع لشركة نوكيا، وهذا ما أثمر البوادر الأولى في ريادة شركة نوكيا في الصناعات التكنولوجية في أوائل السبعينيات من القرن الماضي, فقد تمكنت من تصميم هواتف رقمية (Digital) وكان أول هاتف يحمل اسم 200Nokia DX ، ويعود الفضل في تطور نوكيا إلى أن فنلندا كانت البلد الوحيد الذي يشجع التنافس في مجال الصناعة ويدعمها بكل السبل المتاحة.
وخلال فترة الثمانينات احتلت نوكيا مكانة مهمة على خارطة الصناعة العالمية, واحتلت المركز الثالث في أوربا العام 1988م في مجال صناعة التلفزيون.
كلمة ليست في قاموس نوكيا:
ولكن هذا الوضع تغير في التسعينات، فقد واجهت نوكيا الكثير من الصعوبات؛ بسبب الركود الاقتصادي, ولكن كما يقول نابيليون: (إن كلمة مستحيل لا توجد إلا في قواميس المجانين)، ولذا بدأت الشركة في الاهتمام بأجهزة الهاتف المحمول، والتي باتت في ذلك الوقت أهم محور يدعم الشركة خلال هذه الصعوبات, لكنها استطاعت الاستمرار في أحلك الظروف، وكان شعار نوكيا الذي اتخذته في ترويج منتجاتها هو (ربط الناس ببعضهم بعضًا) أو (connecting people)، وهو شعارها حتى الآن.
وقد حققت الشركة مبيعات بلغت 6, 52 مليار مارك فنلندي عام 1997م، ونظام نوكيا GSM يباع في 72 شركة اتصالات في 36 دولة, ويعمل لديها أكثر من 38000 موظفًا على مستوى العالم.
وختامًا مثلث النجاح:
إن فكرة بسيطة وطموح عظيم واتحاد قوي بين شركات، ثلاث حولت نوكيا من مصنع صغير للمناديل الورقية إلى شركة عملاقة لها باع طويل وفضل كبير في ربط الناس ببعضهم بعضًا في لحظات.
إن النجاح حقًا له مذاق خاص, ولكن ليس المطالب بالتمني, فكما يقول الأستاذ محمد أحمد الراشد: (التطوير ينطلق من المعاناة), فإذا أردت أن تطور من نفسك، عليك أولًا أن تكافح وتعاني وتتغلب على الصعوبات.
أهم المراجع:
1. حكايات كفاح، كفاح فياض.
2. سحر التحفيز، كاثرين كافيلاس.
3. قرارات تغير حياتك، هال إيربان.
4. اضغط الزر وانطلق، روبين سبكيولاند.
5. المنطلق, محمد أحمد الراشد.

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ماذا رسم الابن كي تبكي امه

كـانـت أم جالـسـه مــع أطفالـهـا تساعـدهـم فــي واجباتـهـم المـدرسـيـه وكـــان مـــن بـيــن أبنـائـهـا طفـلـهـا الـــذي لـــم يـدخــل الـمـدرسـه بـعــد ..
بعـد الانتهـاء مـن الواجبـات الدراسيـه قامـت الأم لتحضـيـر الـغـداء لأب زوجـهـا (المـسـن) الــذي كـانـت لــه غـرفـه منعـزلـة فــي الـخـارج فــي حديـقـة المـنـزل ..
ذهــبـــت الــيـــه وقــدمـــت لـــــه الــغـــداء واطــمــأنــت عــلــيــه وتـــأكـــدت أنــــــه لا يـــريـــد شــــــيء آخــــــر ..
أثـنــاء عـودتـهـا الـــى الـمـنـزل أصـابـهـا الـفـضـول فـيـمـا كـــان يفـعـلـه ابـنـهــا الـطـفــل .. لاحــظــت الأم قــبــل احــضــار الـطـعــام لأب
زوجـهـا أن ابنـهـا كــان ممسـكـا بقـلـم أحــد اخـوتـه ويـرسـم مربـعـات ودواويــر عـلـى ورقــه فتجاهـلـت الأمــر .. لكنـهـا تفاجـئـت أنـهــا وبـعــد انـتـهـاء
عملها وعودتها من عند أب زوجها(عمها) أن ابنها لايزال ممسكا بالقلم ويرسم .. فتقربت الأم شيئا فشيئا الى ابنها وهي تسأله : ماذا يرسم الحبيب ؟ فقال لها أرسم بيت المستقبل الذي سأسكنه أنا وزوجتي وأطفالي..
فــرحــت الأم لــمــا سـمـعـتـه ولـكـنـهـا لاحــظــت أن ابـنـهــا رســــم مــربــع مـنـعــزل خــــارج الـمـنــزل .. فـسـألـتـه: لــمــا هــــذا
المـربـع هـنـا ومنـعـزل عــن بـاقــي المـربـعـات والـمـمـرات في الـمـنـزل ؟؟!.. فـكــان الـجــواب كالصـاعـقـه لـــلأم الـتــى لـــم تتـوقـعـه مـــن ابـنـهـا !!
.. والـتــي حـمــدت الله عــلــى ســــؤال ابـنـهــا قــبــل فــــوات الأوان .. كــــان جــــواب الابــــن الـبـريــئ : هــــذي مــامــا سـتـكــون
غـرفـتــك عـنـدمــا تـكـبـريـن .. فـسـألـتـه :وهــــل ستجـعـلـنـي فــــي غــرفــة لــوحـــدي ولا أحـــــد يـؤنـسـنــي .. فــقـــال لــهـــا :
لا ســــأزورك ولـكـنـنـي سـأجـعـلـك فــــي غــرفــة مـنـعـزلـة مــثــل غــرفــة جـــــدي.. مـــــا أن سـمــعــت الأم هـــــذا الــجـــواب
مـــن ابـنـهـا حـتــى فـاظــت عينـيـهـا بـالـدمــوع فــقــررت تـبـديــل غــرفــة الـجـلــوس فــــي الـبـيــت بـغـرفــة عـمـهــا (أب زوجــهــا)
ونـقــل غـرفــة الـجـلـوس الـــى الـخــارج .. وأثـنــاء عـــودة الـــزوج مـــن عـمـلــه اسـتـغــرب لــمــا يـحـصــل فــــي الـمـنــزل مــــن
تـغـيـيـرات فــذهــب الــــى زوجــتــه وسـألـهــا مــــا الــــذي يـحـصــل؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟ ولــمـــا هـــــذه الـتـغـيـيـرات ؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟؟ فـأجـابـتــه :
تـأثــرت بـكــلام ابـنــي الـــذي رســـم بـيــت المستـقـبـل وغرفـتـنـا أنــــا وانــــت المـنـعـزلـه عــــن الـمـنــزل فــــلا أريــــد أن يــــرى
أبنـائـي جـدهـم مـنـعـزل ويـقـومـوا بـفـعـل نـفــس الـشــئ بـنــا أنـــا وانـــت .. .. .. .. كـــاد الـــزوج أن يـطـيـر مـــن الـفـرحـة لـمــا قـررتــه
زوجـتــه .. وبـــارك لـهــا جـهـودهـا .......... ومـــا أن دخـــل الـعــم الـــى الـمـنـزل حـتــى تـفـاجـأ الابـــن لــمــا يــــراه فـغـيــر رســــم
بـــيــــت الـمـسـتـقـبــل وأضـــــــاف غــــرفــــة والــــديــــه (الــمـــربـــع الــمــنــعــزل) الــــــــى بــيـــتـــه ......... !

 

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اصلح عيوبك قبل ان تنتقد عيوب الاخرين

انتقل رجلٌ مع زوجته لـ منزلٍ جديد ,
و في صبيحة اليوم الأوّل .. و بينما يتناولان وجبة الإفطار ..
قالت الزّوجة مشيرةً من خلف زجاج النّافذة المطلّة على الحديقة
المشتركة بينهما و بين جيرانهما ؛ أُنظر يا عزيزي .. إنّ غسيل جارتنا
ليسَ نظيفًا .. فـ لا بدّ أنها تشتري مسحوقًا رخيصًا ..
و دأبت الزّوجة على إلقاء نفس التّعلق في كلّ مرة ترى جارتها تنشر الغسيل !
و بعد شهر اندهشت الزّوجة عندما رأت الغسيـل نظيفًا على حبال جارتها ,
و قالت لـ زوجها ؛ انظر , لقد تعلّمت أخيرًا كيف تغسّل ..
فأجاب الزّوج ؛ عزيزتي لقد نهضت مبكّرًا هذا الصّباح و نظفت زجاج النّافذة التي تنظرين منها :d

* قد تكون أخطاؤك هي الّتي تُريك أعمال النّاس خطأ ,

فَـ أصلِح عيوبكْ قبل أن تنتقد عيوب الآخرين ..

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قصص في الـــــــذكاء

مواطن بلجيكي دأب طوال 20عاماً على عبور الحدود نحو ألمانيا بشكل يومي على دراجته الهوائية حاملا على ظهره حقيبة مملوءة بالتراب، وكان رجال الحدود الألمان على يقين انه "يهرب" شيئاً ما ولكنهم في كل مرة لا يجدون معه غير التراب (!). 

السر الحقيقي لم يكشف إلا بعد وفاة السيد ديستان حين وجدت في مذكراته الجملة التالية: 

"حتى زوجتي لم تعلم انني بنيت ثروتي على تهريب الدراجات إلى ألمانيا "!!. 

أما عنصر الذكاء هنا فهو ( ذر الرماد في العيون وتحويل أنظار الناس عن هدفك الحقيقي !).

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